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Related Links: Curriculum Module on Women and Aging
Prepared by Andrew E. Scharlach and Esme Fuller-Thomson
University of California at Berkeley
School of Social Welfare
Berkeley, CA 94720-7400
Foreword
... I see you, old woman, I see the YOU,
not the old. In your eyes Iread the story of the years, of the pain, the sweet
delights. I see you, Woman, know yourfemininity, your graceful
movements,
your healing tenderness.
... If I see you, if I can feel your pain, if I
can know your joy, youare not alone. You arenot a small "i" far away like a
stringless kite.
... Look at me, Woman, as I look at you. See ... we know
each other;we are part of thesame rainbow. Your colors flow into mine; mine fade
into yours. We arethe same combination
of sun and rain and reflection of
life.
... There are those who look at you and say, "She is childish." But
I view you and I say "sheis child-like." To be childish is to be petulant,
temperamental, unwilling to endure frustration orpunishment or misery of any
kind. But the slashes which make parenthesesaround your mouthshow pain long
endured and seldom vocalized. Your eyes bear imprints oftears shed and
sorrowfelt... There are traces of laughter, and in your age and your tiring
bodythere still resides the childwho can awake to wonder and to the miracle of a
light which is justbeginning to trace gold lineson the wall of a
room.
... Old Woman, I do see the you that was and the you that is ... I
seeyou in the nurseryrhyme. You still remember it, "There was an old woman who
lived in a shoe ..."
... It wasn't exactly a shoe you lived in, but it
seemed crowded like onewhen the children were
young.... But now you are an
old woman. And the shoe is empty.... No
sound in the house. Just an old woman
and an empty shoe.
... You still have so many children you don't know
what to do. Mainlybecause each child hasthe solution to your old age. And no
solution fits you, any more thansomeone else's shoe canmatch your foot. Each
child want to uproot you, place you in a new shoe,in one which has notbeen
softened to your shape with the passing years.
... You will not wither in
total loneliness ... solitary, away. Myhands and those of peoplearound me will
reach for you in the dungeon of your alienation, will liftyou, carefully, into
theslanted sunlight of our lives.
... Our fires will bring you warmth;
our companionship will give yousustenance. We willwiden our circles.... We will
open doors and invite you into theroom-brightness of our lives.
... I see
you, old woman. But even as I look, your face turns into myown. We stand
atopposite ends of the same long corridor, reflecting the image of one
another.
This material from Aging in America by Bert kruger
Smith. Copyright 1973 by Bert Kruger Smith. Reprinted by permission of Beacon
Press.
Preface
These curriculum materials provide a basic
introductionto existing knowledge regarding older women in the United States.
They are designed to provide instructors withaccurate information that can
easily be integrated intoexisting undergraduate and graduate-level courses,
including courses in social welfare, public health, anthropology,sociology,
psychology, and gender studies. In so doing, itis hoped that these materials
will enhance the quantity andquality of aging content in existing courses, so
thatstudents can be better prepared for the intellectual and societal challenges
facing an aging society.
The curriculum module on Women and Aging
consists ofthree sections: (1) an overview of existing knowledge regarding women
and aging; (2) an annotated bibliography of suggested readings; and, (3) a list
of available audiovisual materials. Instructors are encouraged to adapt these
materials as appropriate to their particular needs. Some instructors may wish to
utilize the information summary as asource of lecture material; others may wish
to assign sections for student reading and discussion. These materials also may
be useful as background reading for students and professors new to this topic.
However they are used, it is hoped that these materials will stimulate increased
interest in and knowledge about women and aging. For further information
regarding how these materials can best be utilized,instructors are welcome to
contact Professor Andrew Scharlach at the School of Social Welfare, 120 Haviland
Hall, Universityof California, Berkeley, CA 94720.
Also being developed
as part of this project are curriculum modules summarizing information regarding
a numberof other aging-related topics, including the following: (1)Demographic
characteristics of an aging society; (2) Myths and stereotypes about aging; (3)
The aging process; (4)Ethnicity and aging. For the cost of reproduction and
mailing, these curriculum modules are available from the Center on Aging,
University of California 140 Warren Hall #7360 , Berkeley, CA 94720-7360 or from
Professor Scharlach at theSchool of Social Welfare.
Development of these
curriculum materials was made possible by grants from the Office of Educational
Development, the Media Resource Center, the Academic Geriatric Resource Program,
the American Cultures Program,and the Eugene and Rose Kleiner Chair for the
Study of Aging Processes, Practices and Policies. Andrew Scharlach,Professor of
Social Welfare and holder of the Kleiner Chair in Aging at the University of
California at Berkeley, coordinated all aspects of the project. Esme
Fuller-Thomson, now at the University of Toronto School of Social Work, assisted
with the literature review and information synthesis.
The authors would
like to express their appreciation to Beacon Press for permission to reprint the
Foreword, which originally appeared in Aging in America by Bert Kruger
Smith (copyright 1973). The authors also would like to express their
appreciation to the Association for Gerontology in Higher Education for
permission to reprint selected annotated references from Brief bibliography:
The older Woman by RuthWeg and Ellen Markson (copyright 1991). We also
are indebted to the numerous faculty members in Social Welfare and other
departments who took the time to review earlier drafts and make suggestions
designed to increase the usefulness of these materials.
Table of Contents
Information
Summary
- Overview
- Images
of Older Women
- Older
Women Alone
- Health
- Economic
Profile
- Familial
Roles and Relationships
- Social
Networks and Social Participation
- Conclusion
- Citations
Annotated
Bibliography
Audiovisual
Resources
Information Summary
Overview
Dramatic demographic shifts are
occurring in the Americanpopulation. None is more profound than the
increasingproportion of elderly and the disproportionate representation of women
within that population. (1) In the past two decades,the population
of those over 65 grew at a rate double that of the rest of the population. (2 )
Of the more than 30 millionseniors in the U.S., women compose 60% or 17.4
million.(3) Among those over 85, women outnumber men more than two to one.
(4)
Until 60 years ago, the ratio of elderly women to men wasabout
equal. During this century, there has been a dramaticlowering of mortality rates
and improvement in lifeexpectancy, with the most substantial gains among women.
Asa result, life expectancy from birth for females has increased a phenomenal 27
years since 1900. (5) Currently, life expectancy at birth for women is 78.8
years, but only 71.5years for men. Demographic predictions indicate that both
the proportion of women in the elderly population and the proportion of elders
in the general population will continue to increase for the foreseeable future.
Images Of Older Women
Despite the
predominance of women among the elderly, itis only in the last decade and a half
that older women have become a focus of research interest, (6) and gender has
not yet been adequately incorporated into theories of aging. Consequently, there
are many gaps in our knowledge aboutolder women, their problems, their concerns,
their relationships and their strengths. Moreover, many commonly held beliefs
about elderly women are based on widespread negative stereotypes.
In a
society that glorifies youth, older women typicallyare portrayed on television
and in other popular media assilly, eccentric, passive and "sickly." (7) An
alternative stereotype of older women is of a "pleasantly plump granny who
spends her time in a rocking chair knitting or sewing," (8) and having few
outside interests.
Women's perception of aging as "the relentless enemy"
and"culturally promoted self-hatred" are manifested in the seven billion dollar
per year beauty industry. (9) The ramifications of being stereotyped can be
devastating, as one seventy-six year old woman commented:
- I think what finally made me decide to go back to my own house was my
grandchildren's reaction to me.... They are not used to old people. The
subdivision they live in is filled with young couples and small children. The
six-year-old was very outspoken. He kept pointing to my wrinkles and my
pronounced veins, and yelling, "Gross!" He saw me as ugly and witch like and
refused to... (come) near me.... It was probably the lowest point in my life.
I felt very depressed and lost a lot of my self-confidence. (10)
Many
women attempt to look young so they will not be included in the common
stereotype of older women as "sexually finished." (11) In fact, research
indicates that older women are still capable of an active and enjoyable sex
life. The decline in older women's sexual activity appears to be more due to a
lack of available partners rather than to a lack of interest. (12)
In
most non-Western societies, by contrast, the status of women improves as they
age. Middle-age and old women are subject to fewer restrictions, more respect
and authority,and greater opportunities than are younger women. For the first
time, they may take on roles outside the household such as councillor, midwife,
story-teller, and master artisan. (13) They receive a great deal of esteem due
to their acquired wisdom and their new roles in the community, and they
typically can hand over some of their more onerous domestic activities to their
daughters and daughters-in-law.
Even in Western societies, despite the
negativestereotypes that exist, the lot of older women is improving.Compared
with previous cohorts, today's older women are better educated, healthier and
more autonomous; (14) they tend to have a larger support network than do men,
and they live longer on average as well. (15 ) Since the Second World
War,women's participation in the work force has consistently risen. (16) Women
now have greater opportunities to enter better-paying, traditionally
male-dominated careers and to be eligible for private and public
pensions.
Significant developments also have occurred in the organizing
of older women during the last decade, partially due to the growth of the Older
Women's League (OWL) with its motto, "organize don't agonize." OWL and other
groups have promoted discussion in the political arena on important issues such
as gender bias in private and public pensions andin health-care and the problems
of the "displaced homemaker."While still disadvantaged vis-a-vis their male
peers, the position of older women does appear to be improving as a result of
efforts such as these.
Older Women AloneWomen are much more likely
than men to live alone duringtheir later years. In one study of women over 65
years old,almost two-thirds were widowed, never-married, or divorced. (17)This
is a consequence of the greater longevity of women and the tendency for women to
marry men older than themselves, sothat 85% of wives outlive their husbands.
(18) Consequently,12.8% of the total American female population and more
thantwo-thirds of those women who are over 75 years of age are widows. (19)
Among Black older women the proportion of widowsis even higher, with 78% of
those over 75 being widows. (20) Only 4% of older women are divorced, but this
proportion isexpected to rise significantly over the next few
decades.
Despite the fact that "the major problems of aging -poverty,
loneliness, vulnerability to crime and toinstitutionalization - are
overwhelmingly the problems ofunmarried women", (21) there is no unanimity
amongst the oldersingle women themselves as to whether their lives are worseor
better than their married peers. Some older women notethat the advantages of
singlehood include more freedom to runtheir own lives, to have their personal
space, to have fewerfamily responsibilities and to pursue a career:
- When my husband died I felt very lonely, and I was worried that no one
would come to visit any more.... Shortly after my husband's death, one of the
professors asked me to deliver a lecture to his students. At first I refused
because...I feared that, at eighty, my mind would be rusty and I would forget
things.... Now I have become something of a celebrity. I have stopped thinking
of myself as a little old lady who was the wife of a famous scholar. For the
first time I hold center stage and I like it.... I have been saved from a very
lonely and limited old age by a skill that I didn't realize I had. There are
probably many women like me who had lived in their husbands' shadows. Given
the opportunity, they could contribute a great deal to society. (22)
In contrast, other single older women cite disadvantages,including
rejection by married peers, loneliness, and thetrauma of unexpected economic
hardship. One eighty-two yearold woman remarked:
- My husband died fifteen years ago, without a pension. I live on about five
hundred dollars a month. After I am finished paying for this shabby place,
there is little left over for food, clothes or any entertainment. I buy my
clothes at rummage sales and I don't eat very much, a little cereal, some
toast, and tea. Sometimes I buy some fresh vegetables and fruit, but then I am
stuck and must cut back on Kleenex, toilet paper, shampoo and the like .... My
family and friends are all gone now.... (My son who) I rarely see...thinks I
am managing and I guess I am, but it feels more like scrounging than really
living. (23)
The 7% of older women who have never married (24) have
better health than separated or divorced women, but higher rates of admission to
mental hospitals and nursing homes.Their connection with family tends to be
close, particularly with siblings. Never-married older women appear to be less
happy than their married peers, but more satisfied than thosewho are widowed and
divorced.
HealthOlder women have greater longevity than
men, but also in-creased likelihood of having one or more chronic illnesses such
as high blood pressure, urinary incontinence, diabetesand arthritis, which often
restrict their movement oractivities of daily living. Osteoporosis, the loss of
bone mass, is disproportionately a disease that afflicts women. By the age of 65
or 70, women have lost 35% of the mineralcontent of their bones and are
therefore very susceptible to bone fractures.(25) Men, on the other hand, are
more vulnerableto acute, life-threatening illnesses. (26) Therefore women arein
some ways advantaged in that they live longer, on average, than men, but they
tend to suffer more years of ill health.
Older women's typically
scattered work history and widowed status often result in their not being
eligible fo raffordable private health insurance. Those who are notmarried nor
working, but are not yet eligible for Medicare,are particularly vulnerable. Even
for those older women whoare covered by health insurance, the out-of-pocket
costs of health care are still considerable, totalling on average one-third of
an older women's annual median income. (27)
Menopause, representing the
normal phase of the lifecycle when menstruation stops and the ability to
reproduce ends, occurs on average when women are 50, although it can begin as
early as 40 or as late as 58. (28) Western society has adopted the disease model
of menopause, connecting physiological problems and depression with the onset of
menopause. However, increased depression in post-menopausal women is more apt to
be a function of societal and psychological variables than of the physiological
transition itself, with women who have primarily identified with their mothering
role and have inadequate social support tending to be more vulnerable to
depression.(29)
Women have a disproportionately higher risk of
institutionalization than men. This is primarily due to two factors: women's
high rates of debilitating, chronic illness, and the large proportion of women
who no longer have a spouse to care for them when they need help with activities
of daily living. Although at any one time only 5% of the elderly population are
in institutions, the lifetime risk of institutionalization is 52% for women
compared to 30% for men.(30)
Economic Profile/Work And Retirement
The
elderly have less average cash income than younger adults and are more likely to
be poor. Older women's medianincome is only 56% of the income of their male
peers ($6,425 compared to $11,544),(31) and older women are twice as likely as
men to have incomes below the poverty line (16% versus8.5%).(32) Certain
subgroups of older women are even more vulnerable to poverty: the unmarried who
live alone (26.8%), Black women who live alone (55%), and those over 85
(25%).(33) The higher ratio of older women in poverty results in more women
exposed to the negative impact of impoverished conditions such as insufficient
food, housing or medical care.
During their working years, today's
older women tendedto be employed in low paying, non-unionized work, often
inpart-time or short-term positions as the demands of homenecessitated. This
work pattern affects women's eligibilityfor social security and for private
pensions.(34) Consequently,women who have been employed are less than half as
likely asmen to be covered by private pensions (20% versus 44%), andthose women
who do receive benefits only receive, on average,half what their male peers
receive. (35)
The financial restrictions experienced by many older women
are indicated by one woman who had worked fifty yearsas a secretary:
- I never made a great deal of money, but it was enough to live on....I
never thought much about my old age - it seems to sneak up on you.... I
haven't a dime to spare these days. Everything goes for rent, food and the
like .... People are always asking me why I didn't save for my old age. To be
honest, I never made enough to save. I guess I could have lived in a room like
this all my life, but I'm glad that I had an apartment when I was younger - it
was a great pleasure to have a home of my own, surrounded by my own things.
(36)
In contrast, older women who have adequate income often find
their retirement years allow them more freedom, fewerresponsibilities and new
opportunities. One eighty year old woman who had raised three children on her
own in poverty found a new career in her mature years. This career gives her
pleasure, pride and the opportunity to pursue her interests:
- I think my life really became much better from age fifty on.... I finally
didn't have the heavy burden of my children wrapped around my throat. And I
started to earn a decent salary for the first time.... I took up private
nursing. I've been doing it for thirty years now, and I suspect I will for
many years to come.... My philosophy is to make the best of things. I get up
every morning feeling good, looking forward to the day.... My doctor has told
me that I will probably live to be a hundred. He can't find anything wrong
with me and keeps telling me that I am a medical wonder. I think part of the
reason I am so healthy is that I read all the time and don't pollute my mind
with television. I go to the symphony and to the theater when I can, but the
public library is my greatest entertainment.... Once a year I take a trip to a
country I have never seen.... It's too bad I was born when I was. The women's
movement has made great changes that would have affected my life significantly
.... But I can't complain. I was born with a good mind and a strong
constitution.... (But) I would like to think that it will get better for other
generations.(37)
However, for many elderly women who need and/or wish
tosupplement their income, entering the labor force is not anoption. Hiring
policies often reflect ageism, typically impacting women at younger ages than
men. Furthermore, older women are unlikely to have recent paid work experience
and only slightly less than half of older women have graduated from high school.
(38) Consequently, in 1980, only 8% of women over 65 were in the labor force.
(39)
It is likely that the current cohort of middle age womenwill be
better off during their senior years, although manyare still outside the paid
work-force or employed in the same"pink-collar" jobs as were their mothers. For
those thathave achieved higher paying, permanent jobs with privatepension
benefits, the future looks much less bleak.Continued lobbying efforts to get
equal pay for equal work,to open up traditionally male-dominated careers to
women, andt o promote private pensions will hopefully improve the economic
situation of all women as they reach the retirement years.
Familial Roles And RelationshipsThe family as
a whole and the role of the woman within the family have changed dramatically in
recent years. At theturn of the century, the average woman could expect to
bewidowed before her last child left home, the last child wouldmarry when she
was 55, and she would, on average, surviveonly another 13 years. By the 1980s, a
woman who married at22 would be 45 when the last child left home, 65 when she
waswidowed, and 83 when she died. (40)
Marital relationship:
Married women over age 60 have beenmarried for a very long time, on average 43
years. (41) Older couples seem predominantly to feel positively about each
other, about their children and about life, (42) based on the development over
time of the ability to comfort and support each other and also a greater
tolerance and acceptance.(43) However, some studies have suggested that marital
satisfaction can deteriorate over time, as sexual intercours eand the number of
shared activities decrease and loneliness increases.(44)A husband's retirement
can also have a negative impact on marital satisfaction, particularly for wives
whoare older, less healthy, less active, less happy in their marriage in
general, have husbands who were manual workers,(45) and are concerned about how
their husbands will deal withtheir excess free time and whether they will
interfere in their wives' domestic domain.(46) However, spousal retirement also
may be seen in a positive light due to the increased free time available for
joint activities.
When a husband becomes ill, the wife often performs the
role of caregiver. Twenty-three percent of older wives carefor an ailing spouse.
(47) Many older women have also been caregivers for their own parents.
Caregiving can be an emotional burden, particularly for those women with other
conflicting demands such as work and dependent or needy children or
grandchildren. On the other hand, the obvious necessity of the role may give a
renewed sense of meaning and purpose to wives, particularly among those who have
lost other roles.(48)
Losing a spouse is one of the most distressing
events of life. Widows are less likely to be included in social events composed
primarily of couples and, therefore, they often find that their social support
network shrinks dramatically. Widows also may be required to gain competence in
numerous new responsibilities and decisions that their spouses had formerly been
responsible for, such as financial managementand house and car maintenance. (49)
And, of course, the loss of a life-time companion and confidante is usually an
extremely difficult adjustment. One seventy year old widow commented:
- Without warning, my second husband had a heart attack and died. I think I
was on the verge of a nervous breakdown after his death. I was all alone and I
thought I couldn't go on. This was the second time I had lost a man I loved
dearly. It was almost unbearable.(50)
However, older women also tend
to be very resilient, and they are less likely than men to die after losing a
spouse.(51) Some women, particularly those with less than happy marriages,
thrive in the new-found freedom of widowhood:
- I was a slave all the years I was married.... My husband died seven years
ago, leaving me nothing but a pile of debts.... Although I don't have much
money, I wouldn't trade my life for anything. I have my own place and I can
come and go as I please. I go swimming twice a week, I bowl, and I paint....
My life really took off when my husband died.... I have waited most of my
adult life to have some time to myself, to have some fun.(52)
Parent-Child Relationships: Four out of five elderly womenhave
living children.(53) Parent-child bonds tend to remainstrong across the
life-span, based upon mutual affection,interdependence, and reciprocal
giving.(54) In most cases, elderly mothers live near, but not with, their adult
children, and have frequent contact with them either inperson or by
telephone.
Older women who need assistance receive it most oftenfrom an
adult daughter, particularly if the mother iswidowed. This assistance is
provided despite the fact thatthe adult daughter also may be caring for her own
offspring,grandchildren or spouse, and may experience physical,financial or
emotional hardships as a result. Elderlymothers may also be conflicted about
becoming too dependenton other family members, as one seventy-two year old
disabledwidow who lives in a convalescent home commented:
- Two of my daughters have said I could live with them, but I will never do
it.... I prefer not to be a burden to anyone.... I had my life and I want to
let them have theirs.... It's not that I don't want to see my children ... but
I want some time to myself before it is too late.(55)
Grandmotherhood: It has been estimated that 94% of olderadults
who have children also have grandchildren. (56) The first grandchild is usually
born when the grandmother is middle-aged, typically allowing the grandmother two
or three mor edecades of life to observe her grandchild's growth from infant to
adult. Grandmothers are typically more satisfied than grandfathers with the
grandparenting role,(57) and young adult grandchildren most frequently report
that their maternal grandmother is the grandparent to whom they feel closest. In
general, grandparents feel close to at least one grandchild and are happy with
their relationship with their grandchildren:
- My grandson is the most important person to me.... He comes to visit me.
He does all these little things for me.... He took care of my car the other
day.... I always had a chest of drawers in my breakfast room, and...it was
always full of toys for all the kids, and they loved it.(58)
Grandmothers often provide care for their grandchildren.This care
can range from the occasional provision of respitecare to the daily baby-sitting
of their grandchildren whose parents work full time outside the home.
Occasionally, grandmothers take custody of their grandchildren when the child's
parents die, are drug addicted, or are otherwise
unavailable.(59)
Siblings in Later Life: Siblings also compose a
key aspectof older women's support networks in later life. One national study
found that 80% of elders had a living siblingand one-third had seen a sibling
within the previous week.(60) In one midwestern study, increased well-being of
widows wasassociated with more frequent interaction with married sisters.(61) In
addition, positive interaction with siblingshas been reported to decrease
feelings of loneliness, provide emotional support, build feelings of closeness,
and validate earlier life experiences.(62)
Social Networks And Social
ParticipationFriendships: Women are more likely than men to have an
intimate friend and to have a wide variety of friends.Friends provide support
and help and are critical in helping older adults deal with stress, especially
for persons who are widowed.(63) One severely disabled divorced older woman
remarked:
- A few friends have stuck by me over the years. One friend in particular
comes to visit me every week, no matter what. She does my shopping and picks
up my dry-cleaning. Good friends arebetter than marriage.(64)
Volunteer Activities: Women who are now elderly belong to a
cohort that traditionally has been the mainstay of community activities and
charities, and involvement in organizations has been identified as a pivotal
element of "successful"aging.(65) It is possible that older women will be forced
to take an even more dominant role in community organizations because of younger
women's work-force participation. One disabled older woman has used volunteer
work to put meaning back into her life, now that she no longer can find
paidwork:
- I have compensated by becoming a volunteer at the (community) center. It
helps me to get out of myself, and I know that there are always people worse
off.... Without intend- ing to, I've become a confidante to a lot of teenage
girls. They come to me for advice, especially the handicapped ones. They like
to talk to someone older, someone who has made a life for herself despite a
handicap.(66)
Church & Religion: Religion is another key
element of most elderly women's lives. In one study, 82% of seniors said that
religion was the most important influence in their lives, and 87% derived
personal comfort and support from religion.(67) Older women are more likely than
older men toattend church, and are more religious in their attitudes.(68) Older
women's morale is highly associated with religion while older men's morale
correlates first with health and then with financial status.(69)
The
church is also an essential component of many older women's social support
network. Among more isolated elders, church going is often the only activity
that integrates the older person into the community. Many churches provide both
informal and formal services to the frail elderly, checking in on them
regularly, providing social contact, transportation, and/or meals-on-wheels type
of services. Religion is particularly likely to be viewed as a source of
strength and a way of coping with stress by the older Black woman. The
importance of religion in this function has its historical roots in the slave
experience, where the black church "came to fulfill in many instances the needs
andfunctions that were once met by the religion-based (African) tribal and
community organization."(70)
ConclusionOlder women tend to be well
integrated into their families and communities, and they are experiencing new
opportunities for improved health, economic status, education, and fulfillment.
National organizations such as the American Association of Retired Persons and
the Older Women's League are beginning to address the needs, problems and
strengths of older women. Furthermore, in the last two decades research interest
and studies on older women have increased dramatically. Consequently, there
appears to be acase for "guarded optimism"(71) that the position of older women
will improve. The speed with which this will occur may depend in part on the
extent to which older women follow the slogan of the Older Women's League to
"organize, not agonize."
Citations
1. This section draws its
information from several overviews of woman and aging, including Coyle, J. M.
(Ed.). (1989). Women and aging: A selected, annotated bibliography. New
York:, Greenwood Press; Hooyman, N. R., & Kiyak, H. A. (1988). Social
gerontology: A multidisciplinary perspective (pp. 499-518). Boston: Allyn
and Bacon; Markson, E. W. (1983). Older women: issues and prospects.
Lexington, MA: Lexington Books; O'Rand, A. (1984).
"Women." In E. B. Palmore
(Ed.), Handbook on the aged in the United States (pp. 125-142). Westport,
CT: Greenwood Press.
2. U.S. Senate, 1987-1988. As cited in Coyle, J. M.
(1989). Women and aging: A selected, annotated bibliography (p. xv). New
York: Greenwood Press.
3. Markson, E. W. (1983). Older women: Issues
and Prospects. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
4. U.S. Senate Special
Committee on Aging. (1986). As cited in Hooyman, N. R., & Kiyak, H. A.
(1988). Social gerontology: A multidisciplinary perspective (P. 500).
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
5. National institute on Aging. (1988, Sept.).
Health resources for older women (NIH publication No. 88-2899, p. 5).
6.
Markson, 1983.
7. Payne, B. & Whittington, F. (1980). "Older women:
An examination of popular stereotypes and research evidence. In M.M. Fuller and
C. A. Martin (Eds.), The older woman (pp. 10-11). Springfield, IL:
Charles C. Thomas. S. Payne & Whittington, 1980, P. 17.
9. Cohen, L.
(1984). Small expectations: Society's-betrayal of older women (p. 19)
Toronto, Canada: McClelland and Stewart.
10. Cohen, 1984, P. 157.
11. Grambs, J. D. (1989). Women over forty: visions and realities
(pp. 20-21). New York: Springer.
12. Payne & Whittington, 1980,
pp. 14-15.
13. Chaney, E. M. (1990). Empowering older women:
Cross-cultural views (P. 7). Washington, DC: American Association of Retired
Persons.
14. Weg, R. B., & Markson, E. W. (Eds.). (1991). Brief
bibliography: The older woman (p. 1). Washington, DC: Association for
Gerontology in Higher Education.
15. Weg & Markson, 1991, pp. 1-2.
16. Hatch, L. R. "Gender & work at midlife & beyond."
Generations, XIV(3), 48-52.
17. Glick, 1979, as cited in Allen,
1989, p. 109.
18. Hooyman & Kiyak, op.cit., p. 510.
19. Lopata, R. Z. (1984). "The widowed." In E. B. Palmore (Ed.),
Handbook on the aged in the United States (p. 109). Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press.
20. U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging. (1984). As
cited inGrambs, op. cit., P. 132.
21. MacLean, 1981, as cited in
Coyle, 1989, p. xvii.
22. Cohen, 1984, pp. 155-156.
23. Cohen,
1984, p. 131.
24. Braito, R, & Anderson, D. (1983). "The ever-single
elderlywoman." In E. W. Markson, Older women: Issues and prospects
(p.197). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
25. National Institute on
Aging, op. cit., pp. 33-36, and Hooyman and Kiyak, ibid., p. 508.
26. National institute on Aging, op. cit., p. 23, and Coyle,op.
cit., p xx.
27. Hooyman & Kiyak, op. cit., p. 506.
28. National Institute on Aging, ibid., pp. 13-15 and Hooyman
& Kiyak, ibid., p. 508.
29. Bart, 1981 as cited in Hooyman &
Kiyak, op. cit., p. 509.
30. Coyle, op. cit., p. xx.
31. Coyle, ibid., p. xviii.
32. Hooyman & Kiyak, op.
cit., p. 502
33. U.S. Bureau of the census as cited in Hooyman &
Kiyak, ibid., p. 502.
34. National institute on Aging, op. cit.,,
pp. 52-53.
35. Hooyman & Kiyak, op. cit.,, pp. 504-505.
36. Cohen, L. (1984). Small expectations: Society's betrayal of older
women (pp. 132-133). Toronto, Canada: McClelland and Stewart.
37.
Cohen, 1984, pp. 148-149.
38. J. D. Grambs, op. cit., p. 157.
39. Grambs, ibid., p. 162.
40. Neugarten & Datan,
1973 as cited in Grambs, ibid., p. 123.
41. Goldman & Lord,
1983, as cited in Grambs, ibid., p. 127.
42. Atchley &
Miller, 1983, as cited in Grambs, ibid., p. 127.
43. Depner &
Ingersoll-Dayton, 1985, as cited in Grambs, ibid., p. 127.
44.
Pineo, 1968, as cited in Grambs, ibid., p. 128.
45. Heyman &
Jeffers, 1968, as cited in Grambs, ibid., p. 128.
46. Fengler,
1975, as cited in Grambs, ibid., p. 128-129.
47. Stone,
Cafferata, & Sange, 1987, as cited in Grambs, ibid., p. 129.
48. K, 1986, as cited in Grambs, ibid., p. 129.
49.
Grambs, op. cit.,, p. 133.
50. Cohen, 1984, p. 154.
51.
Hooyman & Kiyak, op. cit.,
52. Cohen, 1984, pp. 159-160.
53. Hess, B. B., & Waring, J. (1983). "Family relationships of older
women: A woman's issue." In E. W. Markson, Older women;Issues and
prospects (p. 236). Lexington, MA: LexingtonBooks.
54. Johnson, E.
S., & Bursk, B. J. (1980). "Relationships between the elderly and their
adult children." In M. M. Fuller and C. A. Martin, The older woman: Lavender
rose or gray Panther (p.159) .Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
55. Cohen, 1984, pp. 149-150.
56. Hooyman & Kiyak, op.
cit.,
57. Roberto, K. A. (1990). "Grandparent and grandchild
relationships." In T. H. Brubaker (Ed.), Family relationships in later
life, (second Edition, p. 104). Newbury Park: Sage.
58. Allen, 1989,
pp. 105-106.
59. Minkler, M. A. (1993). Grandmothers as caregivers:
Raising children of the crack cocaine epidemic. Newbury Park, CA:Sage.
60. Shanas, 1980 as cited in Scott, ibid., p. 90.
61.
O'Bryant, 1988, as cited in Scott, ibid., P. 91.
62. Gold, 1987,
as cited in Scott, ibid., p. 91.
63. Grambs, op.cit., pp.
93-98.
64. Cohen, 1984, p. 152.
65. Payne & Bull, 1985 as
cited in Grambs, ibid., p. 99.
66. Cohen, 1984, p. 151.
67. U S. Senate Special committee on Aging. (1984). As cited in Grambs,
ibid., p. 102.
68. Coyle, op.cit., p. xx.
69.
Koenig, Dvale, & Ferrel, 1988, as cited in Grambs, op.cit., p. 102.
70. McAdoo, 1979, as cited in Grambs, ibid., p. 214.
71.
Weg & Markson, 1991, p. 1.
Selected Annotated
Bibliography
General References
Arber, S., & Ginn, J. (1992). Gender and
later life: A sociological analysis of resources and constraints. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
This book considers issues of gender, class, quality oflife
and ageism, and examines the possibility that thesefactors are more important
than chronological age ininfluencing well-being in later life.
Barusch,
A. S. (1994). Older women in poverty: Private lives and public policies.
New York, NY: Springer.
This volume presents findings of an extensive study
ofthe life histories of low-income older women from around thecountry. It
includes detailed life stories of seven selectedwomen. The book then offers
recommendations for policychanges that are desperately needed to prevent and
amelioratepoverty among older women.
Chaney, E. M. (Ed.). (1990).
Empowering older women: Cross cultural views. Washington, DC: Women's
Initiative of the American Association of Retired Persons, in cooperation with
the International Federation on Aging.
This publication is intended as an
education, training,and awareness-raising module on women at midlife and
olderage in cross-cultural perspective. It is designed fordiscussion groups and
workshops, and as an information sourceon women's lives.
Cool, L., &
McCabe, J. (1987). "The "scheming hag" and the "dear old thing:" The
anthropology of aging women." In J. Sokolovsky (Ed.), Growing old in
different societies: Cross cultural perspectives (pp. 56-68). Acton, MA:
Copley Publ. Group.
An exploration of older women from a feministperspective,
this article by two anthropologists reviewsresearch findings and stereotypes of
older women in thesocial science literature. The perceived powerlessness ofolder
women is contrasted to their findings on Corsican andLebanese elder women whose
dominance and power increases withage. Appropriate for lower and upper division
courses onwomen and aging, psychology of aging, psychology of women,and
sociology or anthropology courses dealing with lifecourse issues.
Coyle,
J. M. (1989). Women and aging: A selected, annotated bibliography. New
York: Greenwood Press.
Selections in this compilation include various topics
ofinterest relating to aging women, such as roles andrelationships, economics,
employment and retirement,sexuality, housing, religion, racial/ethnic groups,
policyand international concerns.
Davis, N. D., Cole, E., & Rothblum,
E. D. (Eds.). (1993). Faces of women and aging. Bingham, N.Y.:
Haworth.
Discover the diverse ways aging women attempt to dealwith the
universal challenges of loss, sickness, and deathalong with the problems of
being old women in a society thatvalues women mainly as sexual partners or
producers ofchildren.
Day, A. T. (1993). Remarkable survivors:
Insights into successful aging among women. Washington, DC: Urban Institute
Press.
The author uses open-ended interview techniques to allowwomen to speak
for themselves about what successful agingmeans. Women discuss how social
expectations and structureshelp or hinder the quality of their
lives.
Garner, J. D., & Mercer, S. O. (Eds.). (1989). Women as
they age: Challenge, opportunity, and triumph. New York: Haworth
Press.
Also published as Journal of Women and Aging, 1, 1989,this volume is
an edited collection of articles contributedby sociologists, social workers,
nurses, and health careworkers, all of whom have specific interest in
aging.Appropriate as a text for courses on women and aging, or assupplemental
reading for social gerontology and women'sstudies. An instructor's manual is
also available.
Glasse, L., & Hendricks, J. (Eds.). (1990, Summer).
"Gender and aging." Generations, 14(3) (entire issue).
Is there
something about our gender that alters the waythe aging process unfolds? How
does being male or femaleaffect us as we grow older? How important is gender to
thestudy of aging? These and other similar questions are thesubject of this
collection of essays.
Gould, K. H. (1989). "A minority-feminist
perspective on women and aging." In D. J. Garner and S. O. Mercer, (Eds.),
Women as they age: Challenge, opportunity, and triumph. New York: The
Haworth Press.
This article proposes the development of a
minority-feministperspective as an appropriate strategy to understandthe social
reality facing older, nonwhite women. Thisperspective recognizes that racism,
sexism, and ageism haveto be viewed in an interactive framework.
Johnson,
M. (Ed.). (1990). Gender and aging [Special issue]. Generations,
XIV(3).
This issue of Generations is comprised of sixteenarticles on gender
and aging, including biology, age andpsychiatric disorders, caregiving, public
policy, poverty,work and labor markets, and political mobilization. Articlesare
clearly written, and the entire issue appropriate toconsider as a supplemental
required text or supplement,depending on the design of the
course.
Markson, E. W. (Ed.). (1984). Older women. Riverside, NJ:
Macmillan.
This edited volume contains a series of articles on olderwomen
authored by sociologists, psychologists, historians,social workers, and
physicians. Part I contains fourarticles on "changing bodies, changing selves;"
Part II dealswith women in the work force and retirement; Part IIIfocuses on
women within and without families, includinghomeless older women; and Part IV
details physical changesafter menopause and cardiovascular risks among elderly
women.Appropriate as a text for courses on women and aging, or assupplemental
reading for social gerontology and women'sstudies.
Rathbone-McCuan, E.
(1984). "Older women, mental health, and social work education." Journal of
Education for Social Work, 20(1), 33-41.
This article discusses a
five-year training project thatdesigned and implemented a curriculum on the
mental health ofolder women in graduate social work education.
Rosenthal,
E. (Ed.). (1990). Women, aging and ageism. NewYork: The Haworth Press.
(Published simultaneously as the Journal of Women and Aging,
2(2).)
A collection of articles presenting timely and
definitiveresearch that illustrates the implications of ageism andsexism in the
lives of middle aged women. Topics addressedinclude stereotypes, ageism, sexism,
extended caregiving,surviving the death of a spouse, and the
damagingrestrictions that society forces upon aging women.
Rossi, A. S.
(Ed.). (1985). Gender and the life course. New York: Aldine.
A
collection of essays representing a variety ofperspectives on the biosocial
implications of gender and age.The book includes a section on historical
perspectives ongender and the life course.
Rossi, A. S. (1986). "Sex and
gender in an aging society." Daedalus, 115(1), 141-169.
This
essay examines the unique sex characteristics of ourspecies in a comparative
bio-evolutionary framework as wellas differences between the sexes as they
relate to socialinstitutions. It also examines the impact on society ofhaving
the majority of men and women be middle aged or older.
Thone, R. R.
(1992). Women and aging: Celebrating ourselves. New York: Harrington Park
Press.
Writing from her own experience, the author encourageswomen to take
charge of the last third of their lives, urgingthem to honor who they are with
joy, humor, celebration and freedom.
Turner, B. F., & Troll, L. E.
(Eds.). (1993). Women growing older: Psychological perspectives. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Presents new research on older women and relates it tothe
psychology of adult development and aging. The authorstake an adult life-span
approach to Americans' gender andracial stereotypes of young, middle-aged, and
elderly women.
Wheeler, H. R. (1991). "A multidisciplinary Facts on
Women's Aging Quiz to enhance awareness." Journal of Women and Aging,
2(4), 91-107.
This article presents and discusses the Facts on
Women'sAging Quiz (FWAQ). This awareness inventory enables the userto test
student's familiarity with information about aging,and to encourage group
discussion of aging issues.
Family and Friendship Relations
Allen, K. R. (1989). Single
women/family ties: Life histories of older women. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
This 146-page book uses a life-course perspective toanalyze the
sociohistorical context, familistic values,midlife variations in kin-keeping and
caregiving, andconnections to home and family of 30 working-class women
bornbetween 1907 and 1914. Variations in the lives of never-married women
arecompared to the life experiences of widows,and the pivotal importance of
family relations for bothgroups is highlighted. A qualitative study, this book
wouldbe appropriate as supplemental or required reading for lowerand upper
division undergraduate courses on women and aging,as well as sociology or
psychology of aging courses.
Kehoe, M. (Ed.). (1989). Lesbians over 60
speak for themselves. New York: The Haworth Press. (Published simultaneously
as the Journal of Homosexuality, 16(3-4).)
This book examines the social,
economical, physical,sexual and emotional lives of aging lesbians.
Contentsinclude information about family and other socialrelationships,
homosexuality, ill health and dependency,differences in marital status,
educational backgrounds andincome.
Sommers, T., & Shields, L. (1987).
Women take care: The consequences of caregiving in today's society.
Gainesville, FL: Triad Publ. Co.
Undergraduates in both lower and upper
division coursesmay find this book, written by two feminists who
spearheadedawareness of displaced homemakers, an easy introduction tothe dilemma
of many midlife and older women, caught betweentending to the needs of elderly
parents, spouse, lover, orfriend, their own needs, and those of other family
members,and to gaps in current social policies in the United States.Suggested as
supplemental reading for courses in socialgerontology, women and aging, women's
studies, and healthsciences.
Health and Nutrition
Grau, L., & Susser, I. (Eds.). (1989).
Women in the later years: Health, social & cultural perspectives.
Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press.
This well-documented volume discusses
processes of agingand the older woman from four major
perspectives:Intergenerational relations and public policy, health andwell
being, social support, and ethnic/cross-cultural -- allareas studied empirically
recently with significantimplications for health and social policy. The chapters
areeasy to read and most of them would be useful to lowerdivision as well as
upper division courses.
Herzog, A. R., Holden, K. C., & Seltzer, M.
(Eds). (1989). Health and economic status of older women: Research issues
& data sources. Amityville, NY: Baywood Publ.
An excellent book which
presents historical, currentstatus, future issues and research needs concerning
olderwomen. Introductory chapters set a clear stage for theparticular issues
addressed in the remainder of the book (5chapters). The content is selective,
and emphasis is onresearch and use of data. This book is not suitable as
anintroductory text or supplementary reading for lower divisioncourses, but is
recommended as an up-to-date resource forfaculty and graduate
students.
National Institute on Aging. (1988). Health resources for
older women. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
(Publication # 88-2899).
This guide provides resources and information on
majorhealth issues affecting women over age 65. These issuesinclude normal
changes that occur during the aging process(such as menopause), activities that
promote health (the safeuse of medicines and accident prevention), and
physicaldisorders that affect older women more frequently than othergroups
(osteoporosis and arthritis).
Verbrugge, L. M. (1989). "Gender, aging and
health." In K. S. Markides (Ed.), Aging and health: Perspectives on gender,
race, ethnicity and class (pp. 23-78). Newbury Park: Sage.
This
well-documented chapter demonstrates thatcontributing factors to observed
differences between thesexes in morbidity, mortality and longevity are social
andbiological. The gap in the rate of change inmorbidity/mortality in favor of
women is beginning to slow asincreasing numbers of men begin to adopt more
prudentlifestyles. A current societal challenge decision makersface includes
reeducation of many segments of society towardshealth promotion and disease
prevention. Such changes coulddelay or eliminate any potential rise in morbidity
andmortality as the population grows steadily older. Contentand style are
appropriate for upper division courses andusable for the motivated lower
division undergraduate aswell.
Humanities and
Literature
Borenstein, A. (1983). Chimes of change & hours:
Views of older women in twentieth century America. Cranbury, NJ: Fairleigh
Dickinson University Press.
This volume draws upon sociology, developmental
andanalytic psychology, oral histories, studies of five womenwriters, and
twentieth century American fiction and non-fiction aboutolder women. Writers
reviewed in depth includeGertrude Atherton, Ellen Glasgow, Zor Neale Hurston,
MaySarton, and Edith Wharton. Useful for purchase for collegeor university
libraries as a reference work.
De Beauvoir, S. (1990). The second sex.
New York: Vintage Books.
First published in 1952, this is hailed as "the
classic manifesto of the liberated woman" by its American publisher. De
Beauvoir's analysis of the position of women includeshistorical, sociological,
psychological, and philosophicalobservations. Of particular interest for
advancedundergraduates and graduate students is the chapter, "From maturity to
old age." Most instructors will prefer to assign sections of this volume rather
than the entire book.
MacDonald, B., & Rich, C. (1983). Look me in
the eye: Old women, aging, & ageism. San Francisco: Spinsters Ink.
An
angry set of essays by Barbara MacDonald and herlover, Cynthia Rich, this book
calls attention to the neglectof older women in general and older lesbians in
particular bythe women's movement. Appropriate for assignment for discussion of
sexuality, social change, and older women amongstudents at all levels.
Work and RetirementMorgan, L. A. (1990). "Economic security of older
women: Issues and trends for the future." In B. B. Hess & E. W. Markson
(Eds.), Growing old in America (4th ed.), (pp. 275-292). New Brunswick,
NJ: Transaction Publs.
The gender gap in later life poverty and factors
shapinglater life economic security for women are examined in thisreview
article. Labor force participation, continuity oflabor force activity, sex
segregation in employment, pensioninequities and social security, the growth of
the servicesector as a marginal labor market for women, and retirementdecisions
are evaluated as well as family related issues suchas marriage, childbearing,
and divorce. Suitable forundergraduate and graduate students in women and
aging,social gerontology, and social policy courses. Excellent
bibliography.
Rayman, P., & Allhouse, K. (1990). Resiliency amidst
inequity: Older women workers in an aging United States. Southport, CT:
Project on Women and Population Aging, Southport Institute for Policy
Analysis.
This monograph, the first of a six-part series on theimpact of
population aging on women's issues to be publishedby the Southport Institute for
Policy Analysis, examines theinteraction of the aging of the U.S. population and
women'slabor force participation. The importance of older womenworkers, the
economic status of older women, their strugglefor dignity against racial, age,
and gender discriminationand inadequate pension benefits are documented and
socialpolicies proposed. Special attention is paid to women ofcolor. Appropriate
as required or supplemental reading forupper level undergraduates and graduate
students.
Selected Journals and Newsletters
For studying women
and older women: Women & Health; Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy; Sex
Roles; International Journal on Aging and Human Development; Journal of Women
& Aging.
Audiovisual Resources
Complaints of a Dutiful Daughter
Running time: 44
minutes/video
IRIS Films
5569 Lawton Avenue
Oakland, CA 94618
(510)
654-5846
A film about the progression of a woman with Alzheimer'sdisease and
the difficult adjustments and decisions that herdaughter must make in caring for
her. The film makes itclear that with appropriate care, acceptance and a
lovingenvironment, an Alzheimer's patient can thrive even as thecourse of the
disease advances. It provides inspiration forAlzheimer's caregivers, both formal
and informal.
Older, Stronger, Wiser
Running time: 28
minutes/film, video
National Film Board of Canada
Indiana University Audio
Visual Center
Bloomington, IN 47405
(812) 855-2103
A focus on the
importance of Black women as foundationsof community-through life-long
dedication to church,education, and family. Profiles 5 remarkable women who
havestruggled to rise above the indignities of racism that have characterized the Black experience for years.
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